Long-term sick leave for back pain, exposure to physical workload and psychosocial factors at work, and risk of disability and early-age retirement among aged Swedish workers.

Only a marginally significant negative interaction was observed between back-pain SA and physical workload ( p = 0.07) among men, i.e. a reduced effect of back-pain SA with increasing levels of physical workload, whereas no effect modification was found among women (Table 5 ).

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Another study reported a marginally statistically significant decreased risk (Thielen et al. 2014 ).

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However, the negative interaction with job strain among women and the decrease in the risk gradient by increasing exposure to physical workload and low job control among men with more back-pain SA episodes (even though these interactions did not reach statistical significance) suggest the presence of a small negative effect modification exerted by exposure to these factors, especially among men.

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