Causes of Stress among Healthcare Professionals and Successful Hospital Management Approaches to Mitigate It during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study.

The Bonferroni test showed a trend-significant difference p = 0.069 between emergency department and the COVID ward/station, with the stress-protective effects being greatest for staff on the COVID ward.

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As for the p -values, values below 0.05 were taken as significant and those below 0.01 were considered highly significant [ 26 ] The effect of sample size was calculated based on Student’s t -test for independent samples, using Hedges’ g-value, which considers that values less than 0.2 indicate a small effect size, values less than 0.5 a medium effect size, and those less than 0.8 a large effect size [ 25 ].

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