Effects of Climate change on temperature and precipitation in the Lake Toba region, Indonesia, based on ERA5-land data with quantile mapping bias correction.

A negative i value represents a downward trend, while a positive i value represents an increasing trend over time.

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Generally, a strong trend of increasing temperature occurs in the first dry and rainy seasons, while the second dry seasons tend to have a weak increasing trend.

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The trend of increasing rainfall in the Lake Toba area is not in line with several conditions in other parts of the world that tend to have a decreasing trend of rainfall, as in Lake Superior in North America 53 , Lake Urmia in Iran 54 , Lake Chad in Africa 55 and Lake Dianchi in China 56 .

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