Parental conditions, modifiable lifestyle factors, and first trimester growth and development: a systematic review.

Regarding maternal dietary patterns, the cross-sectional study (n = 847) observed that high adherence to an energy-rich dietary pattern, characterized by high consumption of bread, margarine, and nuts, was associated with a larger embryo CRL (1.62 mm [95% CI: 0.52–2.72]) compared to low adherence, with a significant trend ( Bouwland-Both et al. 2013a ).

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The studies that did not find a significant association between smoking and embryonic growth and development, nonetheless reported an overall trending inverse association, which did not reach statistical significance ( Prabhu et al. 2010 ; van Dijk et al. 2018 ; Stamatopoulos et al. 2022 ).

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