Potential biomarkers for early periodontal inflammation: investigating CD5<sup>+</sup> B cells, salivary cytokines and oral microbiome.

For IL-1β, the overall difference between groups was borderline significant (global unadjusted p = 0.052; age-adjusted p = 0.051), with a trend toward higher medians in periodontitis (5.1-fold vs. healthy, p = 0.067; 3.7-fold vs. gingivitis, p = 0.195; Fig. 2 b).

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After age adjustment by logistic regression, the overall group effect remained significant ( p = 0.011) and the age-adjusted trend approached significance ( p = 0.056).

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While TGF-β1 did not reach statistical significance, its detection frequency was roughly twofold higher in periodontitis compared to health and gingivitis.

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