Helminth infection modulates the immunogenicity of COVID-19 vaccines in mice without compromising protective efficacy.

Consistent with these findings, splenocytes from Sm -infected mice tended to secrete lower amounts of Th1 cytokines (IFNγ, TNFα, and IL-2) following spike protein stimulation ( Figure 1G ), but higher amounts of Th2 cytokines, like spike-specific IL-4, IL-5, and SEA-specific IL-5 and IL-10 ( Figure 1G ; Supplementary Figure 1E ), although most differences did not reach statistical significance.

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Sm -infected mice also showed a trend toward lower levels of spike-specific Th2 cytokines (IL-4 and IL-5) compared to non-infected mice ( Figure 2H ), and lower SEA-specific Th2 cytokines (IL-5 and IL-10) compared to the 8-week Sm infection group ( Supplementary Figures 1E , 2C ), possibly reflecting overall immunosuppression during the chronic infection phase of Schistosoma ( 28 ), though these differences were not statistically significant.

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