Codon usage bias and the evolution of influenza A viruses. Codon Usage Biases of Influenza Virus.

In bronchial epithelial cells (Figure 4B and 4C ), codon usage in the human H1 HA or H3 NA viral genes had a positive trend with year of viral isolation.

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The longer circulating H3N2 subtype genes of avian origin, PB1 and HA [ 49 ], showed a trend, over time, away from the avian codon usage cluster.

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With the exception of the HA (H1N1) (r = 0.27, p < 4e-08) and NA (H3N2) genes (r = 0.48, p < 2e-16), the correlation coefficients between human and viral codon usage showed a negative trend with the year of virus isolation (Figure 4A ).

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