Effects of open-label placebos on test performance and psychological well-being in healthy medical students: a randomized controlled trial.

Similarly, adding the participant’s expectation of the OLP treatment (expectancy subscale score of the Credibility and Expectancy Questionnaire, CEQ) as a covariate to the analysis showed a trend towards a significant interaction effect (group × CEQ expectation score, OLP compared to control, 0.96 ± 0.55%, t(153) = 1.94, p = 0.074, d = 0.15).

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The OLP group also showed less increase in all other outcome variables including mood impairment, anxiety, somatization, sleep quality impairment, and caffeine consumption although these changes did not reach statistical significance.

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